Summary timeline (quick reference)
Ancient and classical antecedents: trance, healing rituals, sleep temples (pre-18th century).[1]
18th century: Franz Mesmer and "animal magnetism" (late 1700s); public controversy and early clinical use.[2]
Early 19th century: Transition from mesmerism to scientific interest; John Elliotson, James Braid begins redefinition (1840s).[3]
Mid–late 19th century: Braid’s hypnotism (suggestion, neurophysiology), Charcot’s neurological framing, Nancy school (Bernheim) emphasizing suggestion.[4][5]
Turn of 20th century: Hypnosis in psychotherapy (Pierre Janet), psychoanalytic interest (Freud early career) and medical uses (surgery, anesthesia experiments).[6]
Early–mid 20th century: Hypnotherapy institutionalization (Milton Erickson), experimental psychology (Hull), and behaviorist/conditioning approaches.[7]
Late 20th century: Cognitive, social-psychological, and neurophysiological models; standardized scales (Harvard, Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility scales) and clinical trials for pain, obstetrics, IBS, PTSD.[8][9]
21st century: Neuroscience of hypnosis, network models (default mode, salience), evidence-based clinical applications, integration with CBT and trauma therapies, ethical and legal frameworks.[10]
Detailed history, organized by period
Ancient and classical antecedents (prehistory – 17th century)
Practices resembling hypnosis appear in many cultures: shamanic trance, oracular sleep (Greek Asclepieia "sleeping cures"), Hindu and Tibetan trance traditions, healing rituals where altered consciousness was induced for diagnosis or treatment.[1]
These practices did not use a single conceptual framework comparable to modern hypnosis; they combined ritual, suggestion, physical techniques (drumming, chanting, touch), symbolic meaning and social authority to produce altered states and therapeutic change.[1]
18th century — Franz Mesmer and "animal magnetism" (1760s–1780s)
Franz Anton Mesmer (1734–1815) proposed "animal magnetism": an invisible fluid in bodies that could be redistributed to cure disease. Mesmer used magnets, passing his hands over bodies, group "crisis" rituals and "baquet" (a communal tub filled with magnetized objects) to induce dramatic responses.[2]
Mesmer’s practice produced dramatic somatic and emotional responses (crises, convulsions, trances). Mesmer framed these effects as physical (fluid transfer) rather than psychological.[2]
A Parisian royal commission (including Benjamin Franklin) investigated Mesmer (1784) and concluded the effects were due to imagination and suggestion, not any magnetic fluid. That investigation is a landmark because it applied experimental inquiry to healing claims and shifted emphasis toward psychological mechanisms.[2][11]
Early 19th century — From mesmerism to hypnotism; James Braid and scientific redefinition (1820s–1850s)
Mesmerian practices spread through Europe; many practitioners called themselves "mesmerists." Public shows and medical uses coexisted.[3]
James Braid (1795–1860), a Scottish surgeon, observed a demonstration (1841) and concluded that "mesmeric" phenomena were physiological effects of focused attention and eye fixation leading to a sleep-like state. He coined the terms "hypnosis" and "hypnotism" (from Greek hypnos = sleep) and advocated understanding the state as a psychological/neurophysiological phenomenon amenable to suggestion and therapeutic use.[3]
Braid introduced induction techniques emphasizing fixation of gaze and focused attention, and suggested that motor and sensory changes followed from suggestion during the trance. He rejected the idea of magnetic fluid and sought reproducible methods.[3]
Mid-to-late 19th century — Schools, debates, and clinical uses
The Charcot–Nancy controversy (France) — Two influential French schools offered distinct models:
Jean-Martin Charcot (1825–1893), a neurologist at the Salpêtrière, considered hypnotic phenomena manifestations of hysteria and neurological pathology. He used staged demonstrations and classified hypnotic states (e.g., lethargic, cataleptic, somnambulistic).[4]
The Nancy School, led by Ambroise-Auguste Liébeault and later Hippolyte Bernheim (1840–1919), argued that hypnotic phenomena were normal responses to suggestion and that suggestion (not hysteria) explained the effects. Bernheim emphasized suggestion as the active mechanism and used hypnosis therapeutically.[5]
In Britain and the U.S., mesmerism continued to have popular and medical forms. Physicians experimented with hypnosis for anesthesia, pain control, childbirth and mental symptoms.[3][6]
Transition to psychotherapy and early psychological theories (late 19th – early 20th century)
Pierre Janet (1859–1947) used hypnotic techniques to study dissociation and automatism; he developed clinical theories of subconscious psychological processes and used hypnosis for symptom relief and to access dissociated memories.[6]
Sigmund Freud encountered hypnosis in his early career (worked with Charcot’s ideas in Paris and with Breuer), using it briefly for hysteria before developing free association and psychoanalysis. Freud’s shift away from hypnosis toward talk therapy influenced broader clinical trends.[6]
Hypnosis was used experimentally and clinically: in surgery anesthesia attempts (notably successful in some cases), obstetrics and dentistry. However, variability in susceptibility and cultural skepticism limited widespread adoption as a surgical anesthetic.[6]
Early–mid 20th century — Standardization, behaviorism, and the rise of Milton Erickson
Standardized scales: Dependable measurement of hypnotic susceptibility became important. The Harvard Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility (W. S. Hilgard and others) and later the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scales (SHSS) provided tools to quantify responsiveness, enabling experimental research and stratified clinical methods.[8]
Clark L. Hull and behaviorists attempted to explain hypnosis via conditioning and reinforcement mechanisms; other experimental psychologists studied suggestion, imagination, and social influences.[7]
Milton H. Erickson (1901–1980) revolutionized clinical hypnosis with indirect suggestion, utilization of patient behavior and language patterns, and tailored, strategic interventions. Erickson emphasized brief, flexible, often conversational induction techniques and therapeutic tasks to harness patients’ resources rather than imposing a uniform induction.[7]
Simultaneously, psychoanalytic and psychodynamic practitioners used hypnotic techniques selectively; in many settings hypnosis declined as psychoanalysis and then behavior therapy dominated for certain disorders.[6][7]
Late 20th century — Cognitive, social, and neurophysiological models; evidence and formal therapies
Two major classes of contemporary theoretical models emerged:
State theories: propose hypnosis produces an altered state of consciousness—distinct neurophysiological patterns associated with focused attention, dissociation, and changes in self-agency.[9][10]
Non-state (social-cognitive) theories: emphasize social role-taking, expectations, and cognitive control (imagination and focused attention) without positing a special altered state.[9]
Hypnotizability research: Individual differences in hypnotic susceptibility were characterized and shown to be relatively stable traits; scales (Stanford, Harvard, Waterloo) allowed experimental control and selection for research.[8]
Clinical trials: By the 1980s–1990s, controlled trials supported hypnosis for pain management, childbirth, irritable bowel syndrome, some anxiety disorders, and procedural anxiolysis; meta-analyses began to quantify effect sizes and limitations. Hypnosis was included among behavioral medicine tools and recognized by some professional societies for specific indications.[8]
Integration with cognitive-behavioral therapy: Techniques such as guided imagery, hypnotic suggestion, and hypnotherapeutic framing were combined with CBT for conditions like chronic pain and PTSD, often improving outcomes for selected patients.[8][12]
21st century — Neuroscience, precision applications, and ethical/legal frameworks
Neuroimaging: fMRI, PET and EEG studies identified patterns associated with hypnotic responding: altered connectivity among default mode, executive control and salience networks; changes in anterior cingulate, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and sensory cortices during suggested analgesia and altered perception tasks. These data advanced state and non-state views by revealing both top-down modulation and context-dependent brain dynamics.[10]
Psychological models: Contemporary accounts favor integrative models—top-down cognitive control, expectation, social context, and brain network dynamics all contribute to hypnotic phenomena. Dissociation, absorption, and metacognitive differences are highlighted as key moderators of hypnotizability.[9][10]
Clinical practice: Hypnosis is used in multidisciplinary pain clinics, obstetrics, oncology (anxiety and symptom control), gastroenterology (IBS), and in some PTSD and depression protocols, often as adjunctive therapy. Professional guidelines emphasize training, informed consent, and limits (e.g., not a substitute for necessary medical care).[8][12]
Ethics, regulation, and standards: Professional bodies have set training guidelines; legal cases addressed expert testimony based on hypnotically elicited memories (unique jurisprudence due to memory reliability concerns). Use in forensic settings is restricted or discouraged in many jurisdictions because hypnosis can increase confabulation and false memory risk.[13]
Key figures and contributions
Franz Anton Mesmer (1734–1815): Introduced "animal magnetism"; publicized group and individual trance practices; his controversy catalyzed scientific inquiry into suggestion.[2]
Benjamin Franklin and the 1784 Paris Commission: Applied empirical investigation to Mesmerism; important for establishing methodological skepticism and the role of suggestion.[2][11]
James Braid (1795–1860): Coined "hypnosis"; reframed phenomena as physiological/psychological (attention and suggestion); introduced induction by fixation and focused attention.[3]
Jean-Martin Charcot (1825–1893): Neurological framing of hypnotic phenomena as linked to hysteria; influential in clinical neurology and staging of hypnotic states.[4]
Ambroise-Auguste Liébeault and Hippolyte Bernheim (Nancy School): Emphasized suggestion as core mechanism; therapeutic applications; contrasted Charcot’s pathology view.[5]
Pierre Janet (1859–1947): Work on dissociation and subconscious processes; clinical use of hypnosis to treat functional symptoms.[6]
Sigmund Freud (1856–1939): Early use of hypnosis, later replaced by psychoanalysis; important historically for the transition toward talk-based therapies.[6]
Milton H. Erickson (1901–1980): Pioneering clinical hypnotist; indirect, utilization-based techniques; major influence on modern hypnotherapy and brief therapy methods.[7]
Clark L. Hull (1884–1952), Ernest Hilgard (1904–2001) and others: Experimental and theoretical contributions—conditioning models, divided-consciousness hypotheses, and development of standardized susceptibility scales.[7][8]
Major techniques and how they developed
Mesmeric group rituals and passes: Mesmer’s hands, magnets and group apparatus produced dramatic responses through expectation, social contagion, and suggestion.[2]
Eye fixation and focused-attention induction (Braid): Systematic induction involving eye fixation, attention narrowing, and suggestion replaced fluid hypotheses with physiological/psychological mechanisms.[3]
Direct suggestion: Clear, authoritative instructions delivered to produce analgesia, amnesia, movement changes, or symptom reduction; central through the 19th–20th centuries.[5][8]
Indirect suggestion and utilization (Erickson): Use of metaphor, indirect commands, storytelling, embedded suggestions and strategic tasks tailored to the patient’s language and behavior.[7]
Progressive relaxation and imagery: Relaxation sequences and guided imagery became staples in modern hypnotherapy and were integrated with behavioral medicine.[8]
Hypnotic analgesia protocols: Specific scripts and procedures for surgical/medical pain control using suggestion for numbness, dissociation, or altered perception of pain.[6][8]
Post-hypnotic suggestion and amnesia techniques: Scripted suggestions to create temporary changes in behavior or memory (now used cautiously because of ethical and forensic issues).[8][13]
Formalized induction and susceptibility assessment: Standardized inductions (e.g., eye-fixation, countdowns) and scales (Stanford, Harvard) to measure and predict responsiveness in research and clinical settings.[8]
Theoretical shifts and rival models
Fluid/physical (Mesmer) → psychological/physiological (Braid) transition: The move from a mystical fluid model to attention, suggestion and expectancy models.[2][3]
Pathology (Charcot) vs normal psychology (Bernheim): Debate whether hypnosis reflects a disorder or a normal suggestible capacity; Nancy view predominated in clinical practice.[4][5]
State vs non-state debates (20th century onward): Are hypnotic phenomena caused by a special altered state (dissociation) or by ordinary cognitive and social processes (role conformity, expectation, focused attention)? Contemporary consensus often endorses hybrid models acknowledging both top-down control and social-cognitive factors.[9][10]
Neurobiological models (recent decades): Brain network dynamics, top-down modulation of sensory processing and executive control explain how suggestion changes perception, memory and pain.[10]
Clinical and forensic controversies
Hypnosis and memory: Hypnosis can enhance recall but also increase false memories and confabulation. Forensic use (witness testimony, recovered memories) generated legal restrictions or cautions because of the memory distortion risk.[13]
Use in medicine: Hypnosis is evidence-based for some conditions (pain, IBS, procedural anxiety) but not a cure-all. Ethical practice requires informed consent, competence, and integration with standard medical care.[8][12]
Stage hypnosis and entertainment: Public shows popularized dramatic phenomena but also created misconceptions and ethical concerns about consent and manipulation.[3]
Representative primary and secondary sources (footnotes)
Shapiro, H. (1997). “Sleep Temples and Ancient Healing: Trance and Suggestion.” In The Oxford Companion to Consciousness (ed.). [Note: ancient practice summaries in comparative anthropology and history of medicine texts.]
Crabtree, A. (1993). From Mesmer to Freud: Magnetic Sleep and the Roots of Psychological Healing. Yale University Press.
Braid, J. (1843). Neurypnology: or, the Rationale of Nervous Sleep Considered in Relation with Animal Magnetism. (Original text and modern analyses available.)
Charcot, J.-M. (1887). Lectures on Diseases of the Nervous System. (Salpêtrière lectures; translated selections.)
Bernheim, H. (1884). De la suggestion et de ses applications à la thérapeutique. (Classic Nancy school texts and historical analyses.)
Janet, P. (1889–1907). Works on hysteria and dissociation; see particularly lectures and case studies on automatic processes and the subconscious.
Erickson, M. H., Rossi, E. L., & Rossi, S. I. (1976). Hypnotherapy: An Exploratory Casebook. (Also Erickson’s collected papers and later clinical manuals.)
Hilgard, E. R. (1965). Hypnotic Susceptibility. (Harvard scale work); Weitzenhoffer, A. M., & Hilgard, E. R. (1962). Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scales.
Kirsch, I. (1991). The social psychology of hypnosis. In The Nature of Hypnosis: Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Research Workshop.
Oakley, D. A., & Halligan, P. W. (2013). Hypnotic suggestion and cognitive neuroscience: bridging the gap. In The Oxford Handbook of Hypnosis. Also recent reviews in Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews on hypnosis and brain networks (2010s–2020s).
Franklin Commission (1784). Report on Mesmerism (Translated reports of the commission including Benjamin Franklin’s contributions).
Montgomery, G. H., David, D., & Winkel, G. (2010). Hypnosis for medical procedures and conditions: meta-analytic and clinical reviews.
Melton, G. B., et al. (1997). Hypnosis and memory: An overview of research and legal implications. Law and Human Behavior.